{"id":562,"date":"2015-01-23T05:23:54","date_gmt":"2015-01-23T05:23:54","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/cool.barnard.edu\/envsci\/?page_id=562"},"modified":"2026-03-01T18:48:12","modified_gmt":"2026-03-01T18:48:12","slug":"how-to-write-your-thesis","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/cool.barnard.edu\/envsci\/index.php\/how-to-write-your-thesis\/","title":{"rendered":"Write a Thesis"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> compiled by Kim Kastens, Stephanie Pfirman, Martin Stute, Bill Hahn, Dallas Abbott, and Chris Scholz<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<table width=\"98%\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"2\">\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Structure\">I. Thesis structure<\/a><\/span><\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td colspan=\"2\">\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Issues\">II. Crosscutting Issues<\/a><\/span><\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<td colspan=\"2\">\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Editing\">III. Editing Your Thesis<\/a><\/span><\/h3>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Title\">Title Page<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"28%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Looking\">What We Are Looking For<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"4%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"35%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Copy\">Copy Editing<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Abstract\">Abstract<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"28%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Planning\">Planning Ahead for Your Thesis<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"4%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"35%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Content\">Content Editing<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\" height=\"24\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\" height=\"24\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#TOC\">Table of Contents<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\" height=\"24\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"28%\" height=\"24\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Audience\">Writing for an Audience<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"4%\" height=\"24\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"35%\" height=\"24\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Ambiguity\">Avoiding Ambiguity<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a>Introduction<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"28%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Skimming\">Skimming vs. Reading<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"4%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"35%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Length\">Thesis Length<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Methods\">Methods<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"28%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Order\">Order of Writing<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"4%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"35%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#International\">Writing for an International Audience<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\" height=\"27\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\" height=\"27\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Results\">Results<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\" height=\"27\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"28%\" height=\"27\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#FandT\">Figures and Tables<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"7\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Discussion\">Discussion<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"28%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Tying\">Tying the Text to the Data<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Conclusions\">Conclusions<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"28%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Giving\">Giving Credit<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Recommendations\">Recommendations<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"28%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Final\">Final Thesis\u00a0<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Acknowledgments\">Acknowledgments<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"28%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Resources\">Resources<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#References\">References<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td rowspan=\"2\" width=\"28%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"3%\" height=\"32\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"27%\" height=\"32\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a href=\"#Appendices\">Appendices<\/a><\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"3%\" height=\"32\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Structure\"><\/a>I. Thesis structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Title\"><\/a>Title Page<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Title (including subtitle), author, institution, department, date of delivery, research mentor(s) and advisor, their instututions and email adresses<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Abstract\"><\/a>Abstract<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">A good abstract explains in one line why the paper is important. It then goes on to give a summary of your major results, preferably couched in numbers with error limits. The final sentences explain the major implications of your work. A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Length should be ~ 1-2 paragraphs, approx. 400 words.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Absrtracts generally do not have citations.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Information in title should not be repeated.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Be explicit.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Use numbers where appropriate.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Answers to these questions should be found in the abstract:\u00a0<\/span>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What did you do?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Why did you do it? What question were you trying to answer?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">How did you do it? State methods.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What did you learn? State major results.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Why does it matter? Point out at least one significant implication.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> \u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"TOC\"><\/a>Table of Contents<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">list all headings and subheadings with page numbers<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">indent subheadings<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">it will look something like this:<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<table width=\"60%\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"40%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<td width=\"20%\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>Page #<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>List of Figures<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>xxx<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>List of Tables<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>Introduction\u00a0<\/b><br \/>\n<b>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 subheads &#8230;?<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>Methods\u00a0<\/b><br \/>\n<b>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 subheads &#8230;?<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>Results\u00a0<\/b><br \/>\n<b>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 subheads &#8230;?\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>Discussion\u00a0<\/b><br \/>\n<b>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 subheads &#8230;?\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>Conclusion<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>Recommendations<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>Acknowledgments<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>References<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>\u00a0<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><b>Appendices<\/b><\/span><\/td>\n<td><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Introduction\"><\/a>Introduction<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> You can&#8217;t write a good introduction until you know what the body of the paper says. Consider writing the introductory section(s) after you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than before. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the introduction. This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to motivate your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an important\/interesting scientific problem that your paper either solves or addresses. You should draw the reader in and make them want to read the rest of the paper. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous research in this area. It should cite those who had the idea or ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the most recent and relevant work. You should then go on to explain why more work was necessary (your work, of course.)<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What else belongs in the introductory section(s) of your paper?\u00a0 <\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">A statement of the goal of the paper: why the study was undertaken, or why the paper was written. Do not repeat the abstract.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand the context and significance of the question you are trying to address.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building. Sufficient references such that a reader could, by going to the library, achieve a sophisticated understanding of the context and significance of the question.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">The introduction should be focused on the thesis question(s).\u00a0 All cited work should be directly relevent to the goals of the thesis.\u00a0 This is not a place to summarize everything you have ever read on a subject.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">A verbal &#8220;road map&#8221; or verbal &#8220;table of contents&#8221; guiding the reader to what lies ahead.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Is it obvious where introductory material (&#8220;old stuff&#8221;) ends and your contribution (&#8220;new stuff&#8221;) begins?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Remember that this is not a review paper. We are looking for original work and interpretation\/analysis by you. Break up the introduction section into logical segments by using subheads. <\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Methods\"><\/a>Methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> What belongs in the &#8220;methods&#8221; section of a scientific paper? <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your results.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Information needed by another researcher to replicate your experiment.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Description of your materials, procedure, theory.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Desciption of your analystical methods, including reference to any specialized statistical software.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> The methods section should answering the following questions and caveats:\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Could one accurately replicate the study (for example, all of the optional and adjustable parameters on any sensors or instruments that were used to acquire the data)?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Could another researcher accurately find and reoccupy the sampling stations or track lines?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Is there enough information provided about any instruments used so that a functionally equivalent instrument could be used to repeat the experiment?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">If the data are in the public domain, could another researcher lay his or her hands on the identical data set?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Could one replicate any laboratory analyses that were used?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Could one replicate any statistical analyses?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Could another researcher approximately replicate the key algorithms of any computer software?<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Citations in this section should be limited to data sources and references of where to find more complete descriptions of procedures.<br \/>\nDo not include descriptions of results.<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Results\"><\/a>Results<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables and graphs.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Indicate information on range of variation.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpret results &#8211; save that for the discussion.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that others can draw their own inferences and construct their own explanations.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W, etc.) throughout the thesis.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Break up your results into logical segments by using subheadings<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Key results should be stated in clear sentences at the beginning of paragraphs.\u00a0 It is far better to say &#8220;X had significant positive relationship with Y (linear regression p&lt;0.01, r^2=0.79)&#8221; then to start with a less informative like &#8220;There is a significant relationship between X and Y&#8221;.\u00a0 Describe the nature of the findings; do not just tell the reader whether or not they are significant.\u00a0 <\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Note: Results vs. Discussion Sections<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Quarantine your observations from your interpretations. The writer must make it crystal clear to the reader which statements are observation and which are interpretation. In most circumstances, this is best accomplished by physically separating statements about new observations from statements about the meaning or significance of those observations. Alternatively, this goal can be accomplished by careful use of phrases such as &#8220;I infer &#8230;&#8221; vast bodies of geological literature became obsolete with the advent of plate tectonics; the papers that survived are those in which observations were presented in stand-alone fashion, unmuddied by whatever ideas the author might have had about the processes that caused the observed phenomena.<br \/>\n<\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">How do you do this?\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Physical separation into different sections or paragraphs.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Don&#8217;t overlay interpretation on top of data in figures.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Careful use of phrases such as &#8220;We infer that &#8220;.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Don&#8217;t worry if &#8220;results&#8221; seem short.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Why?\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Easier for your reader to absorb, frequent shifts of mental mode not required.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Ensures that your work will endure in spite of shifting paradigms.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Discussion\"><\/a>Discussion<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Start with a few sentences that summarize the most important results. The discussion section should be a brief essay in itself, answering the following questions and caveats:\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial and temporal variations.)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What are the relationships, trends and generalizations among the results?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalizations?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns resulting predictions?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the introduction &#8211; what is the relationship of the present results to the original question?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What is the implication of the present results for other unanswered questions in earth sciences, ecology, environmental policy, etc&#8230;.?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Multiple hypotheses: There are usually several possible explanations for results. Be careful to consider all of these rather than simply pushing your favorite one. If you can eliminate all but one, that is great, but often that is not possible with the data in hand. In that case you should give even treatment to the remaining possibilities, and try to indicate ways in which future work may lead to their discrimination.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Avoid bandwagons: A special case of the above. Avoid jumping a currently fashionable point of view unless your results really do strongly support them.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What are the things we now know or understand that we didn&#8217;t know or understand before the present work?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Include the evidence or line of reasoning supporting each interpretation.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What is the significance of the present results: why should we care?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> This section should be rich in references to similar work and background needed to interpret results. However, interpretation\/discussion section(s) are often too long and verbose. Is there material that does not contribute to one of the elements listed above? If so, this may be material that you will want to consider deleting or moving. Break up the section into logical segments by using subheads. <\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Conclusions\"><\/a>Conclusions<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from your observations?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want them to remember about your paper?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached from carrying out this investigation, summarize new observations, new interpretations, and new insights that have resulted from the present work.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Include the broader implications of your results.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Do not repeat word for word the abstract, introduction or discussion.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Recommendations\"><\/a>Recommendations<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Include when appropriate (most of the time)<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Remedial action to solve the problem.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Further research to fill in gaps in our understanding.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Directions for future investigations on this or related topics.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Acknowledgments\"><\/a>Acknowledgments\u00a0<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Advisor(s) and anyone who helped you:\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">technically (including materials, supplies)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">intellectually (assistance, advice)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">financially (for example, departmental support, travel grants)<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"References\"><\/a>References\u00a0<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">cite all ideas, concepts, text, data that are not your own<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">if you make a statement, back it up with your own data or a reference<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">all references cited in the text must be listed<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">cite single-author references by the surname of the author (followed by date of the publication in parenthesis)<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">&#8230; according to Hays (1994)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">&#8230; population growth is one of the greatest environmental concerns facing future generations (Hays, 1994).<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">cite double-author references by the surnames of both authors (followed by date of the publication in parenthesis)<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">e.g. Simpson and Hays (1994)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">cite more than double-author references by the surname of the first author followed by et al. and then the date of the publication<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">e.g. Pfirman, Simpson and Hays would be:<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Pfirman et al. (1994)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">do not use footnotes<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">list all references cited in the text in alphabetical order using the following format for different types of material:<\/span>\n<ul>\n<li>Hunt, S., 1966, Carbohydrate and amino acid composition of the egg capsules of the whelk Buccinum Undatum L: Nature, v. 210, no. 5034, p. 436\u2013437.<\/li>\n<li>National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1997, Commonly asked questions about ozone:\u00a0<a title=\"Original URL: http:\/\/www.noaa.gov\/public-affairs\/grounders\/ozo1.html. Click or tap if you trust this link.\" href=\"https:\/\/nam04.safelinks.protection.outlook.com\/?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.noaa.gov%2Fpublic-affairs%2Fgrounders%2Fozo1.html&amp;data=02%7C01%7Csmacey%40amnh.org%7C102081893fc345c1914408d7b5549c3a%7Cbe0003e8c6b9496883aeb34586974b76%7C0%7C0%7C637177247337058277&amp;sdata=QyY%2FNKvGhQkLpXYjYkjQC7C3sYSopW1NfdHLGdfuu%2F8%3D&amp;reserved=0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">http:\/\/www.noaa.gov\/public-affairs\/grounders\/ozo1.html<\/a>\u00a0(accessed September 1997).<\/li>\n<li>New York Times, 1\/15\/00, PCBs in the Hudson still an issue, A2.<\/li>\n<li>Pfirman, S.L., Simpson, H.J., and Hays, J., 1994, Undergraduate research at Barnard and Columbia: Journal of Research, v. 11, p. 213\u2013214.<\/li>\n<li>Pechenik, J.A., 1987, A Short Guide to Writing about Biology: Harper Collins Publishers, New York, 194 p.<\/li>\n<li>Pitelka, D.R., and Child, F.M., 1964, Review of ciliary structure and function, <i>in<\/i>\u00a0Hutner, ed., Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa, Volume 3: Academic Press, New York, p. 131\u2013198.<\/li>\n<li>Sambrotto, R., 1997, Lecture notes, Environmental Data Analysis, Barnard College, Oct 2, 1997.<span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Appendices\"><\/a>Appendices\u00a0<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>In a few paragraphs, describe how you have used AI tools in preparation of this thesis. This appendix should always be included if you used AI.<\/li>\n<li>We suggest you maintain a running log (e.g. a Google Doc) in which you record any use of AI (prompts and outputs) to make sure nothing gets lost when it comes to a proper attribution of material in the thesis\/proposal to AI tools used.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Include all your data in the appendix (unless sharing electronic files with your mentor is more appropriate)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Reference data\/materials not easily available (theses are used as a resource by the department and other students).\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Tables (where more than 1-2 pages).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Calculations (where more than 1-2 pages).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">You may include a key article as appendix.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">If you consulted a large number of references but did not cite all of them, you might want to include a list of additional resource material, etc.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">List of equipment used for an experiment or details of complicated procedures (step by step recipes).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Note: Figures and tables, including captions, should be embedded in the text and not in an appendix, unless they are more than 1-2 pages and are not critical to your argument.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Issues\"><\/a>II. Crosscutting Issues<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Looking\"><\/a>What Are We Looking For?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> We are looking for a critical analysis. We want you to answer a scientific question or hypothesis. We would like you to gather evidence &#8212; from various sources &#8212; to allow you to make interpretations and judgments. Your approach\/methods should be carefully designed to come to closure. Your results should be clearly defined and discussed in the context of your topic. Relevant literature should be cited. You should place your analysis in a broader context, and highlight the implications (regional, global, etc.) of your work. We are looking for a well-reasoned line of argument, from your initial question, compilation of relevant evidence, setting data in a general\/universal context, and finally making a judgment based on your analysis. Your thesis should be clearly written and in the format described below. <\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Planning\"><\/a>Planning Ahead for Your Thesis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> If at all possible, start your thesis research during the summer between your junior and senior year &#8211; or even earlier &#8211; with an internship, etc. &#8230; then work on filling in background material and lab work during the fall\u00a0 so that you&#8217;re prepared to write and present your research during the spring . The best strategy is to pick a project that you are interested in, but also that a faculty member or other professional is working on. This person will become your research mentor and this gives you someone to talk with and get background material from. If you&#8217;re unsure about the selection of a project, let us know and we&#8217;ll try to connect you with someone.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Audience\"><\/a>Writing for an Audience<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Who is your audience?\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Researchers working in analogous field areas elsewhere in the world (i.e. other strike-slip faults, other deep sea fans).\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Researchers working in your field area, but with different techniques.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Researchers working on the same interval of geologic time elsewhere in the world.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">All other researchers using the same technique you have used .\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">If your study encompasses an active process, researchers working on the same process in the ancient record.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Conversely, if your study is based on the rock record, people studying modem analogs.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">People writing a synthesis paper on important new developments in your field.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">People applying earth science to societal problems (i.e. earthquake hazard reduction, climate warming) who will try to understand your paper.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Potential reviewers of your manuscript or your thesis committee.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Skimming\"><\/a>Skimming vs. Reading<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Because of the literature explosion, papers more skimmed than read. Skimming involves reading the abstract, and looking at the figures and figure captions. Therefore, you should construct your paper so that it can be understood by skimming, i.e., the conclusions, as written in your abstract, can be understood by study of the figures and captions. The text fills out the details for the more interested reader.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Order\"><\/a>Order of Writing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Your thesis is not written in the same order as it is presented in. The following gives you one idea how to proceed.\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">first organize your paper as a logical argument before you begin writing<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">make your figures to illustrate your argument (think skimming)<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">the main sections are: background to the argument (intro); describing the information to be used in the argument, and making points about them (observations), connecting the points regarding the info (analysis), summing up (conclusions).\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">outline the main elements: sections, and subsections<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">begin writing, choosing options in the following hierarchy &#8211; paragraphs, sentences, and words.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Here is another approach.\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Write up a preliminary version of the background section first. This will serve as the basis for the introduction in your final paper.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">As you collect data, write up the methods section. It is much easier to do this right after you have collected the data. Be sure to include a description of the research equipment and relevant calibration plots.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">When you have some data, start making plots and tables of the data. These will help you to visualize the data and to see gaps in your data collection. If time permits, you should go back and fill in the gaps. You are finished when you have a set of plots that show a definite trend (or lack of a trend). Be sure to make adequate statistical tests of your results.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Once you have a complete set of plots and statistical tests, arrange the plots and tables in a logical order. Write figure captions for the plots and tables. As much as possible, the captions should stand alone in explaining the plots and tables. Many scientists read only the abstract, figures, figure captions, tables, table captions, and conclusions of a paper. Be sure that your figures, tables and captions are well labeled and well documented.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Once your plots and tables are complete, write the results section. Writing this section requires extreme discipline. You must describe your results, but you must NOT interpret them. (If good ideas occur to you at this time, save them at the bottom of the page for the discussion section.) Be factual and orderly in this section, but try not to be too dry.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Once you have written the results section, you can move on to the discussion section. This is usually fun to write, because now you can talk about your ideas about the data. If you can come up with a good cartoon\/schematic showing your ideas, do so. Many papers are cited in the literature because they have a good cartoon that subsequent authors would like to use or modify.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">In writing the discussion session, be sure to adequately discuss the work of other authors who collected data on the same or related scientific questions. Be sure to discuss how their work is relevant to your work. If there were flaws in their methodology, this is the place to discuss it.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">After you have discussed the data, you can write the conclusions section. In this section, you take the ideas that were mentioned in the discussion section and try to come to some closure. If some hypothesis can be ruled out as a result of your work, say so. If more work is needed for a definitive answer, say that.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">The final section in the paper is a recommendation section. This is really the end of the conclusion section in a scientific paper. Make recommendations for further research or policy actions in this section. If you can make predictions about what will be found if X is true, then do so. You will get credit from later researchers for this.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">After you have finished the recommendation section, look back at your original introduction. Your introduction should set the stage for the conclusions of the paper by laying out the ideas that you will test in the paper. Now that you know where the paper is leading, you will probably need to rewrite the introduction.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">You must write your abstract last.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"FandT\"><\/a>Figures and Tables<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">The actual figures and tables should be embedded\/inserted in the text, generally on the page following the page where the figure\/table is first cited in the text.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">All figures and tables should be numbered and cited consecutively in the text as figure 1, figure 2, table 1, table 2, etc.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Include a caption for each figure and table, citing how it was constructed (reference citations, data sources, etc.) and highlighting the key findings (think skimming). Include an index figure (map) showing and naming all locations discussed in paper.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">You are encouraged to make your own figures, including cartoons, schematics or sketches that illustrate the processes that you discuss. Examine your figures with these questions in mind:\u00a0<\/span>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Is the figure self-explanatory?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Are your axes labeled and are the units indicated?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Show the uncertainty in your data with error bars.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">If the data are fit by a curve, indicate the goodness of fit.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Could chart junk be eliminated?\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Could non-data ink be eliminated?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Could redundant data ink be eliminated?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Could data density be increased by eliminating non-data bearing space?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Is this a sparse data set that could better be expressed as a table?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Does the figure distort the data in any way?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Are the data presented in context?<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Does the figure caption guide the reader&#8217;s eye to the &#8220;take-home lesson&#8221; of the figure?<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Figures should be oriented vertically, in portrait mode, wherever possible. If you must orient them horizontally, in landscape mode, orient them so that you can read them from the right, not from the left, where the binding will be.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Tying\"><\/a>Tying the Text to the Data\u00a0<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> &#8220;Show them, don&#8217;t just tell them\u2026&#8221; Ideally, every result claimed in the text should be documented with data, usually data presented in tables or figures. If there are no data provided to support a given statement of result or observation, consider adding more data, or deleting the unsupported &#8220;observation.&#8221;<br \/>\nExamine figure(s) or table(s) pertaining to the result(s).<br \/>\nAssess whether:\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">the data support the textual statement<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">the data contradict the textual statement<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">the data are insufficient to prove or refute the textual statement<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">the data may support the textual statement, but are not presented in such a way that you can be sure you are seeing the same phenomenon in the data that the author claims to have seen.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Giving\"><\/a>Giving Credit<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> How does one fairly and accurately indicate who has made what contributions towards the results and interpretations presented in your paper?: by referencing, authorship, and acknowledgements.<br \/>\nDifferent types of errors: <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">direct quotes or illustrations without quotation marks, without attribution<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">direct quotes without quotation marks, with attribution<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">concepts\/ideas without attribution<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">concepts\/ideas with sloppy attribution<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">omitting or fabricating data or results<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Check references carefully and reread reference works prior to publication. The first time you read something, you will consciously remember some things, but may subconsciously take in other aspects. It is important to cross check your conscious memory against your citations.<br \/>\nSee also:<br \/>\nD. Kennedy, 1985, On Academic Authorship<br \/>\nSigma Xi, 1984, Honor in Science<br \/>\nYale University pamphlet on plagiarism<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Final\"><\/a>Final Thesis<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Submit thesis onto the Courseworks website.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Double-spaced using 12-point font.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">1-inch margins.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Include page numbers.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Resources\"><\/a>Resources<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">The Barnard Writing Room provides assistance on writing senior theses.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Look at other theses on file in the Environmental Science department, they will give you an idea of what we are looking for.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Of course do not hesitate to ask us, or your research advisor for help.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">The Barnard Environmental Science Department has many books on scientific writing, ask the departmental administrator for assistance in locating them.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Also see <a href=\"http:\/\/www.barnard.columbia.edu\/envsci\/envsci\/courses\/sen_sem\/resources.html\">additional books listed as Resources<\/a>.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Editing\"><\/a>III. Editing Your Thesis<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Even a rough draft should be edited. <\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Copy\"><\/a>Copy Editing<\/span><\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Proof read your thesis a few times.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Check your spelling. spellcheckers are useful for initial checking, but don&#8217;t catch homonyms (e.g. hear, here), so you need to do the final check by eye.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Make sure that you use complete sentences<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Check your grammar: punctuation, sentence structure, subject-verb agreement (plural or singular), tense consistency, etc.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Give it to others to read and comment.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Content\"><\/a>Content Editing<\/span><\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">logic<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">repetition, relevance<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">style<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Ambiguity\"><\/a>Avoiding ambiguity<\/span><\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Do not allow run-on sentences to sneak into your writing; try semicolons.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Avoid nested clauses\/phrases.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Avoid clauses or phrases with more than two ideas in them.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Do not use double negatives.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Do not use dangling participles (i.e. phrases with an &#8220;-ing&#8221; verb, in sentences where the agent performing the action of the &#8220;-ing&#8221; verb is not specified: &#8221; After standing in boiling water for two hours, examine the flask.&#8221;).\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Make sure that the antecedent for every pronoun (it, these, those, that, this, one) is crystal clear. If in doubt, use the noun rather than the pronoun, even if the resulting sentence seems a little bit redundant.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Ensure that subject and verb agree in number (singular versus plural).\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Be especially careful with compound subjects. Be especially careful with subject\/verb agreement within clauses.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Avoid qualitative adjectives when describing concepts that are quantifiable (&#8220;The water is deep.&#8221; &#8220;Plate convergence is fast.&#8221; &#8220;Our algorithm is better.&#8221;) Instead, quantify. (&#8220;Water depths exceed 5km.&#8221;)\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Avoid noun strings (&#8220;acoustic noise source location technique&#8221;).<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Do not use unexplained acronyms. Spell out all acronyms the first time that you use them.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"Length\"><\/a>Thesis length<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Write for brevity rather than length. The goal is the shortest possible paper that contains all information necessary to describe the work and support the interpretation.<br \/>\nAvoid unnecessary repetition and irrelevant tangents.<br \/>\nNecessary repetition: the main theme should be developed in the introduction as a motivation or working hypothesis. It is then developed in the main body of the paper, and mentioned again in the discussion section (and, of course, in the abstract and conclusions).<br \/>\nSome suggestions on how to shorten your paper:\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Use tables for repetitive information.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Include only sufficient background material to permit the reader to understand your story, not every paper ever written on the subject.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Use figure captions effectively.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Don&#8217;t describe the contents of the figures and\/or tables in the text item-by-item. Instead, use the text to point out the most significant patterns, items or trends in the figures and tables.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Delete &#8220;observations&#8221; or &#8220;results&#8221; that are mentioned in the text for which you have not shown data.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Delete &#8220;conclusions&#8221; that are not directly supported by your observations or results.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Delete &#8220;interpretation&#8221; or &#8220;discussion&#8221; sections that are inconclusive.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Delete &#8220;interpretation&#8221; or &#8220;discussion&#8221; sections that are only peripherally related to your new results or observations.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Scrutinize adjectives! adverbs and prepositional phrases.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"> Although it varies considerably from project to project, average thesis length is about 40 pages of text plus figures. This total page count includes all your text as well as the list of references, but it does not include any appendices. These generalizations should not be taken too seriously, especially if you are working on a labor-intensive lab project. If you have any questions about whether your project is of sufficient scope, consult one of us early on.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<h3><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><a name=\"International\"><\/a>Writing for an International Audience<\/span><\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Put as much information as possible into figures and tables. In particular, try to find a way to put your conclusions into a figure, perhaps a flowchart or a cartoon.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Don&#8217;t assume that readers are familiar with the geography or the stratigraphy of your field area.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Every single place-name mentioned in the text should be shown on a map.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Consider including a location map, either as a separate figure or as an inset to another figure. If your paper involves stratigraphy, consider including a summary stratigraphic column&#8211;in effect, a location map in time.\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Use shorter sentences. Avoid nested clauses or phrases.\u00a0\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\">Avoid idioms. Favor usages that can be looked up in an ordinary dictionary. &#8220;Take the beaker out of the oven immediately&#8230;&#8221; rather than &#8220;Take the beaker out of the oven right away&#8230;&#8221;<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<table width=\"99%\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td width=\"4%\" height=\"28\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<div align=\"right\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><i>by: <a href=\"mailto:martins@ldeo.columbia.edu\">martins@ldeo.columbia.edu<\/a><\/i><\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div align=\"right\"><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><i>\u00a0<\/i><\/span><\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Arial;\"><br \/>\n<\/span><!--more--><\/p>\n<p><!--more--><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>compiled by Kim Kastens, Stephanie Pfirman, Martin Stute, Bill Hahn, Dallas Abbott, and Chris Scholz I. Thesis structure II. Crosscutting Issues III. Editing Your Thesis \u00a0 Title Page \u00a0 What We Are Looking For \u00a0 Copy Editing \u00a0 Abstract \u00a0 Planning Ahead for Your Thesis \u00a0 Content Editing \u00a0 Table of Contents \u00a0 Writing for [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-562","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","wpautop"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/cool.barnard.edu\/envsci\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/562","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/cool.barnard.edu\/envsci\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/cool.barnard.edu\/envsci\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cool.barnard.edu\/envsci\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cool.barnard.edu\/envsci\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=562"}],"version-history":[{"count":10,"href":"https:\/\/cool.barnard.edu\/envsci\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/562\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1725,"href":"https:\/\/cool.barnard.edu\/envsci\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/562\/revisions\/1725"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/cool.barnard.edu\/envsci\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=562"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}